The rise of fast food consumption in post-World War II Japan suggests major shifts in Japanese eating patterns. Though the spread of Western fast food franchises is an inevitable effect of globalization and modernization, fast food in Japan is different in notable and revealing ways. Rather than seeing this phenomenon as Japan succumbing to Westernization, the Japanese have instead adopted Western fast food elements and modified these elements to fit their own culture. Existing Japanese fast foods are then able to co-exist along with Western fast foods; there is no culture clash because Western fast foods fit perfectly within their culture.
One of the most widespread fast food chains and best examples of a Western corporation that is modified to fit within Japan is McDonalds. McDonalds franchises all over the world are adapted to fit the culture of whatever country that particular branch is located in, which usually involves tweaking some items on the menu to include food that is locally eaten. In comparison to other foreign countries, McDonalds appears to have had an especially strong effect in Japan. Japan’s most popular fast food chain is McDonalds, and furthermore, Japan has the second largest number of McDonalds in the world. (Schlosser 242)
Although many superficial aspects of Japanese McDonalds are identical to those of American McDonalds, the former differs in significant ways that reveal fundamental differences between the cultures of both countries. Firstly, the most apparent differences are additions to the menu. For the most part, the menu is the same as that of anywhere else and includes the standard burgers and fries. However, the menu does include more ethnic variations of typical fast food, such as Chicken Tatsuta sandwiches with chicken cabbage, and mustard mayonnaise. (Ritzer 173) By offering foods that are tailored to fit Japanese tastes, Japanese people are able to more easily accept McDonalds as part of their culture and not as a foreign franchise.
More importantly, McDonalds caters to the Japanese masses by understanding their perceptions of fast food and changing their McDonalds branches to accommodate these perceptions. One major difference is the Japanese people’s view of hamburgers as a snack rather than a meal. Unlike with Westerners, the Japanese did not eat red meat in large quantities until the past few decades. In fact, Japanese people associated meat consumption with Western countries, which they considered to be barbaric before the 20th century. Instead, the Japanese associated themselves with rice, so much so that they believed “self is to the other as rice is to meat.” (Watson 166-67) Although meat consumption is growing in Japan, it may still have this stigma attached to it, especially amongst the older generation.
Likewise, bread was also considered Western and alien until the mid-1950s. Because the Japanese eat rice in large quantities, there had not been much appeal in eating bread. Since the fifties, however, Japanese consumption of bread has grown so much that it has largely replaced rice in Japanese breakfasts. This is linked to the convenience of serving bread in the morning; this saves housewives from waking up earlier each morning in order to cook rice. Though both meat and particularly bread have been accepted in mainstream Japanese society, the Japanese still consider dinner unfulfilling if there is no rice present in the meal. It is most likely because of this that the Japanese consider hamburgers to be a snack rather than a meal. (Watson 168) Whereas Americans eat bread and meat regularly and do consider a hamburger a meal, the Japanese still associate fullness with rice.
McDonalds recognizes that the Japanese perceive hamburgers differently from Americans. To accommodate this difference, McDonalds stores in Japan cater to both the important communal aspect of eating in Japanese culture as well as the convenience of eating fast food in a hurry. Watson argues that eating at McDonalds is an isolated and individual act, and compares the experience of eating at McDonalds to eating at a stand-up noodle shop, where people have so little time to eat that they eat ramen as quickly as they can while standing. He points out that at one McDonalds he visited, there was not a single seat. (Watson 179) Watson observes that many McDonalds customers appear to be alone and do not associate with others while they eat. He also notes that hamburgers are a kind of food that is meant to be consumed by an individual. (Watson 169) All of this implies that, like a stand-up noodle shop, McDonalds is ideal for men who need a quick snack to eat by themselves before or after work. This analysis of McDonalds also goes against the idea of eating as a way of fostering a sense of community amongst people.
However, Traphagan and Brown argue against Watson’s point by analyzing the behavior of families who eat at McDonalds rather than individuals. Groups of people, but families in particular, usually share the food they order at McDonalds. Burgers are torn into pieces to pass out to each other, people freely take bites out of each other’s burgers, and drinks are usually passed around. Although McDonalds may serve many individual businessmen, they also recognize that fostering of a sense of community amongst its customers who arrive in groups is beneficial to attracting customers. Japanese McDonalds usually have a waitress to deliver food to tables if it is not immediately available at the counter, and waitresses make sure to put items that can be easily shared, such as fries or chicken nuggets, at the center of the table. (Traphagan & Brown 125-27) This is reminiscent of other restaurants where communal items such bowls of rice or large platters of sushi are also put at the center of the table under the assumption that it will be shared amongst the members of a group. (Traphagan & Brown 129-30) The Japanese McDonalds corporation understands the hamburgers’ status as a snack and uses it to attract businessmen who need something quick to eat, as well as groups of people who go to McDonalds for the communal experience. McDonalds does not serve just one type of customer or the other, rather, it serves both types of customers. Because McDonalds accommodates Japanese consumers so well, the fast food chain has become a very prevalent and accepted part of Japanese day-to-day life.
Watson and Traphagan and Brown also disagree on whether McDonalds purposefully presents itself as a Westernized product or not. Watson uses the example of McJoy, a magazine produced by McDonalds for local customers, which once featured a sent-in cover illustration depicting a Caucasian woman with blonde hair and blue eyes. Based on this, he stated that to the Japanese public, McDonalds is “Americana constructed by the Japanese,” or the image of America as seen through Japanese eyes. (Watson 173) Traphagan and Brown, on the other hand, argue that McDonalds is not seen as Western in Japan; in fact, many Japanese believe McDonalds is a Japanese creation and are surprised to find McDonalds in American cities. Like with ramen noodles that were originally of Chinese origin but are now considered fully Japanese, McDonalds has been so thoroughly integrated into Japanese pop culture that many of the younger generation no longer realize that it is of foreign origin. (Traphagan and Brown)
It is possible that the person who sent in the cover illustration to McJoy envisioned a stereotypically American woman in relation to McDonalds because hamburgers and other standard fast food are known to be American inventions, not because McDonalds itself is automatically related to America. Thus to say that the popularity of McDonalds is a sign of Japan’s increased Americanization is untrue; rather than appear American, McDonalds changed the way it’s usually run in small, but revealing ways in order to appear more Japanese. By appearing Japanese, McDonalds can cater to the masses in ways that it may have been unable to if the franchise were presented as an American franchise.
Conversely, Burger King decided to take the opposite approach and stress its status as an American product in an attempt to distance itself from McDonalds and attract more customers. Burger King has much less of a presence in Japan than McDonalds, largely due to the fact that McDonalds and its primary competitor Mos Burger dominate the industry. McDonalds and Mos Burger are already pushing the market to the point of oversaturation, leaving very few opportunities for other hamburger chains to gain recognition, even for hamburger chains like Burger King that are very well-known abroad. In response to this, Burger King revamped its branches in Japan, adopting a high-class 50s and 60s American theme. (Ming Chuan) Advertising Burger King as high-class serves two purposes: first, it may attract customers who are interested more in atmosphere, and two, it justifies the higher cost that Burger King is forced to charge for its food.
Although sales have risen since this change, the success of Burger King under this new strategy seems doubtful. As previously noted, Japanese people see hamburgers as a snack, and because of this, businessmen use McDonalds the same way they would a stand-up noodle shop. Atmosphere would make no difference to this type of customer; what matters much more is price, in which case McDonalds wins out. Likewise, that McDonalds is assumed to be a Japanese invention most likely works in their favor. Burger King’s strategy of flaunting its American status may attract some, but it does not seem likely it will become as accepted or appeal to the masses as much as McDonalds if Burger King becomes too foreign and alien.
Thus the appeal of Western fast food chains is that they are convenient, and more notably, de-Westernized. As stated previously, a hamburger is distinctly American, but McDonalds is not. The process called “McDonaldization” involves disengaging a product or thing from its original source and re-embedding it within other indigenous institutions. There is no chance in risking the build-up of xenophobic sentiment because the source, in this case America, can remain virtually unknown, as it has been separated from its source and made to adapt other institutions. (Ashkenazi & Jacob 22) This is the difference between globalization and Westernization; the McDonalds franchise is an example of globalization in that it has successfully “re-embedded” itself into Japanese culture. On the other hand, Burger King is more an example of Westernization in that it has not disengaged itself from its source, but instead makes its source known in an attempt to gain appeal.
Interestingly, none of the McDonalds researchers investigate fast food to go; that is, how the Japanese behave when bringing and eating fast food outside of the restaurant. A more traditional form of Japanese fast food may shed some light onto this issue: ekiben, or lunch boxes sold at train stations are an important part of riding trains in Japan. Though comparable in concept to airplane food, ekiben is very different in terms of quality as well as in its metaphorical significance. Ekiben functions more like traditional Japanese food than American fast food; rather than the standardization and uniformity that is typically seen in fast food chains, the food contained in ekiben changes depending on which region the station is in and what foods are eaten locally within that region. (Noguchi 318)
The quality and nutrition of ekiben in comparison to American fast food and airplane food is also very different; whereas people are more likely to complain of the quality and healthiness of the latter foods, ekiben is typically spoken about with praise. Also, the presentation of ekiben is more in line with the traditional Japanese presentation of foods; it is all presented at once and divided into different compartments without a single center of focus. (Noguchi 318) Whereas hamburgers and French fries are considered fast food no matter how it is presented, ekiben is traditional Japanese food packaged and distributed in a way that makes it fast food.
Ekiben and its connection to transportation defines its importance within Japanese society and also explains why the quality and presentation of ekiben is so much higher than that of its Western counterparts. The train is considered one of the main forms of transportation in Japan, even in big cities. Unlike in America, riding the train was traditionally seen in Japan as a communal experience, and as mentioned previously, communal experiences are enhanced by food. Ekiben serves this purpose; the quality of the food must be good in order to foster better relationships among the passengers who ride and eat together. (Noguchi 319)
Just as ekiben is connected to trains in Japan, in America, fast food is connected to automobiles. Although eating at McDonalds has been made into a communal experience in Japan, its origins still lead to America, where fast food is generally not a communal experience. In America, fast food is valued for its cheapness, convenience, and the fact that it is easy to pick up for dinner on the way home, and so driveways are usually the most-used way of buying fast food. Interestingly, in the beginning, fast food chains primarily served customers who preferred to eat in their cars rather than at home. Because ekiben and fast food chains serve two different purposes, the two do not clash; instead, the two coexist alongside each other. (Noguchi 319) Also, ekiben is not considered a snack but a full meal, and is typically consumed on the train; Western fast food is seen as a snack and is typically consumed within the fast food branch store. The two exist for different purposes and do not appear likely to clash.
The presentation and the amount of effort that goes into creating ekiben is comparable to another homemade concoction that is quite similar: the obento. The obento is another lunchbox, but unlike the ekiben, the obento is created by mothers to be used by their children at school. Like the ekiben, the obento is divided into compartments and all the courses are presented at once. Presentation is key, so much so that it would be considered embarrassing for mother and child alike if the child were to appear at school with a very plain and undecorated obento. Nutrition is also key, and so, unlike in American school lunches, fast food is not present and is replaced by healthy hand-cooked foods. (Allison 196-97) Yet again, obento are grouped with convenience foods because of their transportability rather than the food itself.
However, if children are eating so healthily, why are there reports on the rising obesity of adult men in Japan as a result of the growing popularity of fast food? Reportedly, one out of every three Japanese men in their thirties is overweight. Some point the blame towards post-WWII school lunch programs, which fed Western fast food-style lunches to Japanese children who did not have lunch. (Gaouette) But this claim does not appear to hold much water now that obento has regained its status as the primary lunch for children of Japan. Rather, it seems more likely that those who are exposed to fast food of all kinds, primarily middle-aged men who spend most of their time away from their home and are often forced to rely on fast food, are more likely to put on weight. Even if men are raised on healthy obento made by their mothers, once they enter the workforce, men spend less time at home and more time consuming less healthy food outside of their home.
In order to have a wider perception of fast food in Japan and the effects of globalization, it is important to take note not only of Western fast food in Japan, but also at Japanese fast food that is exported to other countries, the most prominent being sushi. Admittedly, not all forms of sushi are fast food. Although sushi started out as a snack food sold on the street, when eaten off a large communal dish at a pricey restaurant, sushi in contemporary times is typically not considered fast food. (Bestor 85) Like with other forms of fast food, it is the presentation of the sushi that makes sushi into fast food. Kaitenzushi are conveyor belt sushi shops, where pairs of sushi rolls of all different kinds are put on multi-colored plates, then put onto a conveyor belt where it circulates through the store. Customers can choose the plates of sushi they want off the conveyor belt. Sushi in this format is considered fast food because customers can quickly grab a few plates of sushi, pay, and leave with little interruption. Like stand-up noodle shops, kaitenzushi are made for the individual and not for social interaction; upon arriving at the kaitenzushi, most people are too preoccupied with the conveyor belt to pay much attention to each other. (Traphagan & Brown 128) Kaitenzushi are then ideal for businessmen and the like who need to quickly eat something then leave. Because of the labeling of kaitenzushi as fast food, the sushi is typically priced lower than the sushi in higher-class establishments.
However, when sushi is exported to America, all forms of sushi are considered exotic and high-class. Case in point, in my observations of one kaitenzushi establishment in the Chicagoland-area, the sushi was not treated like fast food at all. Rather, customers who had never seen sushi delivered on a conveyor-belt before valued the novelty of it. Because sushi in general is considered an exotic food in America, and because kaitenzushi are rarely seen in America, going to a kaitenzushi becomes an event for Americans that is on-par with going to a higher-class sushi restaurant.
Sushi in America is what Burger King is attempting to be in Japan; an exotic foreign product that is exciting mostly because it is foreign. In America, sushi will never be as prominent as McDonalds, but because sushi is valued more than common American fast food, sushi typically costs much more. Admittedly, there are forms of sushi available that are cheaper and considered more low-class, but these sushi tend to be the rolls that are known to be unauthentic, such as California rolls; these rolls are less valuable because they are not truly Japanese, and are less exotic than real Japanese rolls. Sushi in America, then, is the opposite of what McDonalds is in Japan; sushi is known to be a Japanese product, and because of that very fact, it is more valued.
Fast food in Japan takes several forms and serves varied purposes within Japanese society. The main division between Japanese fast food and Western fast food is that Western fast food is defined as such because of the food itself, whereas Japanese fast food has more to do with presentation and the way the food is delivered and consumed. Despite these differences, Western fast food is able to exist harmoniously alongside Japanese fast food; Western fast food has been presented in a way that stresses the all-important community over the individual, and now both American and Japanese fast foods serve different purposes within society that are equally useful and appealing.
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The ending paragraphs are kind of scattershot, but I thought the info was interesting enough to keep. :)
